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Windows is a group of several proprietary graphical operating system families developed and marketed by Microsoft. Each family caters to a certain sector of the computing industry. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20, , as a graphical operating system shell for MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces GUIs.

Apple came to see Windows as an unfair encroachment on their innovation in GUI development as implemented on products such as the Lisa and Macintosh eventually settled in court in Microsoft’s favor in On PCs, Windows is still the most popular operating system in all countries.

The most recent version for embedded devices is Windows 11 , version 21H2. Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks, each of which denotes a family of Windows operating systems that target a specific sector of the computing industry. As of , the following Windows families were being actively developed:.

The term Windows collectively describes any or all of several generations of Microsoft operating system products. These products are generally categorized as follows:.

The history of Windows dates back to when Microsoft started work on a program called “Interface Manager”.

It was announced in November after the Apple Lisa , but before the Macintosh under the name “Windows”, but Windows 1. Windows 1. The shell of Windows 1. Instead all windows are tiled. Only modal dialog boxes may appear over other windows. Microsoft sold as included Windows Development libraries with the C development environment, which included numerous windows samples.

Windows 2. It features several improvements to the user interface and memory management. The result of this change led to Apple Computer filing a suit against Microsoft alleging infringement on Apple’s copyrights. It runs in real mode but can make use of the high memory area.

In addition to full Windows-packages, there were runtime-only versions that shipped with early Windows software from third parties and made it possible to run their Windows software on MS-DOS and without the full Windows feature set.

The early versions of Windows are often thought of as graphical shells, mostly because they ran on top of MS-DOS and use it for file system services. Unlike MS-DOS, Windows allowed users to execute multiple graphical applications at the same time, through cooperative multitasking.

Windows implemented an elaborate, segment-based, software virtual memory scheme, which allows it to run applications larger than available memory: code segments and resources are swapped in and thrown away when memory became scarce; data segments moved in memory when a given application had relinquished processor control.

Windows 3. They run inside the same address space, where the segmented memory provides a degree of protection. Microsoft rewrote critical operations from C into assembly.

In August , Windows for Workgroups, a special version with integrated peer-to-peer networking features and a version number of 3. It was sold along with Windows 3. Support for Windows 3. The next major consumer-oriented release of Windows, Windows 95 , was released on August 24, While still remaining MS-DOS-based, Windows 95 introduced support for native bit applications , plug and play hardware, preemptive multitasking , long file names of up to characters, and provided increased stability over its predecessors.

Windows 95 also introduced a redesigned, object oriented user interface, replacing the previous Program Manager with the Start menu , taskbar , and Windows Explorer shell. Windows 95 was a major commercial success for Microsoft; Ina Fried of CNET remarked that “by the time Windows 95 was finally ushered off the market in , it had become a fixture on computer desktops around the world.

Windows 95 was followed up with the release of Windows 98 on June 25, , which introduced the Windows Driver Model , support for USB composite devices , support for ACPI , hibernation , and support for multi-monitor configurations. Windows 98 also included integration with Internet Explorer 4 through Active Desktop and other aspects of the Windows Desktop Update a series of enhancements to the Explorer shell which were also made available for Windows Windows 98 SE added Internet Explorer 5.

Mainstream support for Windows 98 ended on June 30, , and extended support for Windows 98 ended on July 11, Windows Me incorporated visual interface enhancements from its Windows NT-based counterpart Windows , had faster boot times than previous versions which however, required the removal of the ability to access a real mode DOS environment, removing compatibility with some older programs , [31] expanded multimedia functionality including Windows Media Player 7, Windows Movie Maker , and the Windows Image Acquisition framework for retrieving images from scanners and digital cameras , additional system utilities such as System File Protection and System Restore , and updated home networking tools.

PC World considered Windows Me to be one of the worst operating systems Microsoft had ever released, and the 4th worst tech product of all time. However, following the successful release of Windows 3. Win32 maintained a similar structure to the Windows APIs allowing existing Windows applications to easily be ported to the platform , but also supported the capabilities of the existing NT kernel.

Following its approval by Microsoft’s staff, development continued on what was now Windows NT, the first bit version of Windows. Windows NT was the first Windows operating system based on a hybrid kernel. The hybrid kernel was designed as a modified microkernel , influenced by the Mach microkernel developed by Richard Rashid at Carnegie Mellon University, but without meeting all of the criteria of a pure microkernel.

The first release of the resulting operating system, Windows NT 3. Windows NT 3. Windows NT 4. The Windows NT name was dropped at this point in order to put a greater focus on the Windows brand. The introduction of Windows XP aimed to unify the consumer-oriented Windows 9x series with the architecture introduced by Windows NT, a change which Microsoft promised would provide better performance over its DOS-based predecessors.

Windows XP would also introduce a redesigned user interface including an updated Start menu and a “task-oriented” Windows Explorer , streamlined multimedia and networking features, Internet Explorer 6 , integration with Microsoft’s. NET Passport services, a ” compatibility mode ” to help provide backwards compatibility with software designed for previous versions of Windows, and Remote Assistance functionality.

At retail, Windows XP was now marketed in two main editions : the “Home” edition was targeted towards consumers, while the “Professional” edition was targeted towards business environments and power users , and included additional security and networking features. Home and Professional were later accompanied by the “Media Center” edition designed for home theater PCs , with an emphasis on support for DVD playback, TV tuner cards , DVR functionality, and remote controls , and the “Tablet PC” edition designed for mobile devices meeting its specifications for a tablet computer , with support for stylus pen input and additional pen-enabled applications.

Extended support ended on April 8, After Windows , Microsoft also changed its release schedules for server operating systems; the server counterpart of Windows XP, Windows Server , was released in April After a lengthy development process , Windows Vista was released on November 30, , for volume licensing and January 30, , for consumers. It contained a number of new features , from a redesigned shell and user interface to significant technical changes , with a particular focus on security features.

It was available in a number of different editions , and has been subject to some criticism , such as drop of performance, longer boot time, criticism of new UAC, and stricter license agreement.

Vista’s server counterpart, Windows Server was released in early On July 22, , Windows 7 and Windows Server R2 were released as RTM release to manufacturing while the former was released to the public 3 months later on October 22, Unlike its predecessor, Windows Vista, which introduced a large number of new features , Windows 7 was intended to be a more focused, incremental upgrade to the Windows line, with the goal of being compatible with applications and hardware with which Windows Vista was already compatible.

Windows 8 , the successor to Windows 7, was released generally on October 26, A number of significant changes were made on Windows 8, including the introduction of a user interface based around Microsoft’s Metro design language with optimizations for touch-based devices such as tablets and all-in-one PCs. These changes include the Start screen , which uses large tiles that are more convenient for touch interactions and allow for the display of continually updated information, and a new class of apps which are designed primarily for use on touch-based devices.

Other changes include increased integration with cloud services and other online platforms such as social networks and Microsoft’s own OneDrive formerly SkyDrive and Xbox Live services , the Windows Store service for software distribution, and a new variant known as Windows RT for use on devices that utilize the ARM architecture , and a new keyboard shortcut for screenshots.

Windows 8 and Windows 8. On September 30, , Microsoft announced Windows 10 as the successor to Windows 8. It was released on July 29, , and addresses shortcomings in the user interface first introduced with Windows 8.

Changes on PC include the return of the Start Menu, a virtual desktop system, and the ability to run Windows Store apps within windows on the desktop rather than in full-screen mode. Windows 10 is said to be available to update from qualified Windows 7 with SP1, Windows 8.

In February , Microsoft announced the migration of its Windows source code repository from Perforce to Git. This migration involved 3.

In June , shortly before Microsoft’s announcement of Windows 11, Microsoft updated their lifecycle policy pages for Windows 10, revealing that support for their last release of Windows 10 will be October 14, On June 24, , Windows 11 was announced as the successor to Windows 10 during a livestream. The new operating system was designed to be more user-friendly and understandable. It was released on October 5, In July , Microsoft announced it will start selling subscriptions to virtualized Windows desktops as part of a new Windows service in the following month.

It is not a standalone version of Windows, but a web service that provides access to Windows 10 and Windows 11 built on top of Azure Virtual Desktop. The new service will allow for cross-platform usage , aiming to make the operating system available for both Apple and Android users. The subscription service will be accessible through any operating system with a web browser. The new service is an attempt at capitalizing on the growing trend, fostered during the COVID pandemic , for businesses to adopt a hybrid remote work environment, in which “employees split their time between the office and home”.

As the service will be accessible through web browsers, Microsoft will be able to bypass the need to publish the service through Google Play or the Apple App Store. Microsoft announced Windows availability to business and enterprise customers on August 2, Multilingual support has been built into Windows since Windows 3. The language for both the keyboard and the interface can be changed through the Region and Language Control Panel. Components for all supported input languages, such as Input Method Editors , are automatically installed during Windows installation in Windows XP and earlier, files for East Asian languages, such as Chinese, and right-to-left scripts, such as Arabic, may need to be installed separately, also from the said Control Panel.

Third-party IMEs may also be installed if a user feels that the provided one is insufficient for their needs. Interface languages for the operating system are free for download, but some languages are limited to certain editions of Windows. Language Interface Packs LIPs are redistributable and may be downloaded from Microsoft’s Download Center and installed for any edition of Windows XP or later — they translate most, but not all, of the Windows interface, and require a certain base language the language which Windows originally shipped with.

This is used for most languages in emerging markets. Full Language Packs, which translates the complete operating system, are only available for specific editions of Windows Ultimate and Enterprise editions of Windows Vista and 7, and all editions of Windows 8, 8. They do not require a specific base language, and are commonly used for more popular languages such as French or Chinese. These languages cannot be downloaded through the Download Center, but available as optional updates through the Windows Update service except Windows 8.

The interface language of installed applications is not affected by changes in the Windows interface language. The availability of languages depends on the application developers themselves.

Windows 8 and Windows Server introduces a new Language Control Panel where both the interface and input languages can be simultaneously changed, and language packs, regardless of type, can be downloaded from a central location. The PC Settings app in Windows 8.

Microsoft Office Professional Hybrid , free download. Microsoft Office Professional Hybrid Microsoft 1,, recognized programs – 5,, known versions – . Microsoft Rewards ; Free downloads & security; Education; Virtual workshops and training; Gift cards; Students and parents deals; Licensing; Microsoft Experience Center; View Sitemap; Search Search the Community. Cancel. install Microsoft Office . Update for Microsoft Office suites (KB) Bit Edition. Download. on 13 votes. Update for Microsoft Office suites (KB) is a neat free program that provides the latest fixes to Microsoft Office suites.

SharePoint is a web-based collaborative platform that integrates natively with Microsoft Office. Launched in , [6] SharePoint is primarily sold as a document management and storage system, but the product is highly configurable and its usage varies substantially among organizations. According to Microsoft , as of December [update] SharePoint had million users. SharePoint Standard may also be licensed through a cloud model. SharePoint Server is provided to organizations that seek greater control over SharePoint’s behavior or design.

This product is installed on customers’ IT infrastructure. It receives fewer frequent updates but has access to a wider set of features and customization capabilities. A free version called ‘Foundation’ was discontinued in SharePoint Enterprise may also be licensed through a cloud model. Microsoft’s hosted SharePoint is typically bundled in Microsoft subscriptions, but can be licensed separately. It is limited to a core set of collaboration, file hosting, and document and content management scenarios, and is updated on a frequent basis, but is typically comparable with SharePoint Enterprise.

SharePoint online is available in all Microsoft Plans. SharePoint usage varies from organization to organization. The product encompasses a wide variety of capabilities, most of which require configuration and governance. SharePoint allows for storage, retrieval, searching, archiving, tracking, management, and reporting on electronic documents and records. Many of the functions in this product are designed around various legal, information management, and process requirements in organizations.

SharePoint also provides search and ‘graph’ functionality. This capability is often used to replace an existing corporate file server , and is typically coupled with an enterprise content management policy.

A SharePoint intranet or intranet portal is a way to centralize access to enterprise information and applications. It is a tool that helps an organization manage its internal communications, applications and information more easily.

Microsoft claims that this has organizational benefits such as increased employee engagement , centralizing process management , reducing new staff on-boarding costs, and providing the means to capture and share tacit knowledge e. SharePoint contains team collaboration groupware capabilities, including: project scheduling integrated with Outlook and Project , social collaboration, shared mailboxes, and project related document storage and collaboration.

WebDAV can be used to access files without using the web interface. For example, WebDAV applications have to support the language tagging functionality of the XML specification [23] which Microsoft’s implementation doesn’t. Only Windows XP to Windows 8 are supported.

SharePoint’s custom development capabilities provide an additional layer of services that allow rapid prototyping of integrated typically line-of-business web applications. Enterprise application developers use SharePoint’s security and information management capabilities across a variety of development platforms and scenarios.

SharePoint also contains an enterprise “app store” that has different types of external applications which are encapsulated and managed to access to resources such as corporate user data and document data. SharePoint provides free-form pages which may be edited in-browser. These may be used to provide content to users, or to provide structure to the SharePoint environment.

Web parts and app parts are components also known as portlets that can be inserted into Pages. They are used to display information from both SharePoint and third-party applications. In SharePoint , some of these were renamed back to Lists and Libraries. A SharePoint Site is a collection of pages, lists, libraries, apps, configurations, features, content types, and sub-sites. Examples of Site templates in SharePoint include: collaboration team sites, communication sites, organization sites, wiki sites, blank sites, and publishing sites.

SharePoint is primarily configured through a web browser. The web-based user interface provides most of the configuration capability of the product. A significant subset of HTML editing features were removed in Designer , and the product is expected to be deprecated in —7. Configuration of server farm settings e. While Central Administration is limited to farm-wide settings config DB , it provides access to tools such as the ‘SharePoint Health Analyzer’, a diagnostic health-checking tool.

In addition to PowerShell’s farm configuration features, some limited tools are made available for administering or adjusting settings for sites or site collections in content databases. A limited subset of these features are available by SharePoint’s SaaS providers, including Microsoft. SharePoint Server can be scaled down to operate entirely from one developer machine, or scaled up to be managed across hundreds of machines.

A SharePoint farm is a logical grouping of SharePoint servers that share common resources. Each farm has its own central configuration database, which is managed through either a PowerShell interface, or a Central Administration website which relies partly on PowerShell’s infrastructure. Each server in the farm is able to directly interface with the central configuration database.

Servers use this to configure services e. IIS , windows features, database connections to match the requirements of the farm, and to report server health issues, resource allocation issues, etc Web applications WAs are top-level containers for content in a SharePoint farm. A web application is associated primarily with IIS configuration. Web Application Servers configured in the farm. A site collection is a hierarchical group of ‘SharePoint Sites’.

Each web application must have at least one site collection. Site collections share common properties detailed here , common subscriptions to service applications, and can be configured with unique host names.

Service applications provide granular pieces of SharePoint functionality to other web and service applications in the farm. Examples of service applications include the User Profile Sync service, and the Search Indexing service. A service application can be turned off, exist on one server, or be load-balanced across many servers in a farm. Service Applications are designed to have independent functionality and independent security scopes. SharePoint’s architecture enables a ‘least-privileges’ execution permission model.

SharePoint Central Administration the CA is a web application that typically exists on a single server in the farm; however, it is also able to be deployed for redundancy to multiple servers. The structure of the SharePoint platform enables multiple WAs to exist on a single farm. In a shared cloud hosting environment, owners of these WAs may require their own management console.

The SharePoint ‘Tenant Administration’ TA is an optional web application used by web application owners to manage how their web application interacts with the shared resources in the farm.

It targeted simple, bottom-up collaboration. The searching and indexing capabilities of SharePoint came from the “Tahoe” feature set. The search and indexing features were a combination of the index and crawling features from the Microsoft Site Server family of products and from the query language of Microsoft Index Server.

GAC- Global Assembly Cache is used to accommodate the shared assemblies that are specifically designated to be shared by applications executed on a system.

Sources: [43] [44]. Sources: [46] [47]. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links , and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view.

November Learn how and when to remove this template message. Web application platform. Main articles: Enterprise content management and document management. Main articles: Intranet portal and Social Network.

Main articles: Personal Cloud and File hosting service. Main article: Software framework. Main article: SharePoint Designer. Microsoft TechNet. Microsoft Corporation. July 24, Retrieved October 23, Microsoft Documentation. November 2, Retrieved January 24, Microsoft Docs. Retrieved December 17, App Store. MSDN Blogs. Archived from the original on 13 August Retrieved 13 August Microsoft Blog. Retrieved March 27, Microsoft SharePoint Marketing Website.

Retrieved August 13, Retrieved November 8, Retrieved July 24, Microsoft Office.

They were accordingly widely criticised for lack of security. The Windows NT series of operating systems, by contrast, are true multi-user, and implement absolute memory protection. However, a lot of the advantages of being a true multi-user operating system were nullified by the fact that, prior to Windows Vista, the first user account created during the setup process was an administrator account, which was also the default for new accounts.

Though Windows XP did have limited accounts, the majority of home users did not change to an account type with fewer rights — partially due to the number of programs which unnecessarily required administrator rights — and so most home users ran as administrator all the time.

Windows Vista changes this [95] by introducing a privilege elevation system called User Account Control. When logging in as a standard user, a logon session is created and a token containing only the most basic privileges is assigned. In this way, the new logon session is incapable of making changes that would affect the entire system.

When logging in as a user in the Administrators group, two separate tokens are assigned. The first token contains all privileges typically awarded to an administrator, and the second is a restricted token similar to what a standard user would receive. User applications, including the Windows shell , are then started with the restricted token, resulting in a reduced privilege environment even under an Administrator account.

When an application requests higher privileges or “Run as administrator” is clicked, UAC will prompt for confirmation and, if consent is given including administrator credentials if the account requesting the elevation is not a member of the administrators group , start the process using the unrestricted token.

Leaked documents published by WikiLeaks , codenamed Vault 7 and dated from to , detail the capabilities of the CIA to perform electronic surveillance and cyber warfare, [97] such as the ability to compromise operating systems such as Windows. In August , computer experts reported that the BlueKeep security vulnerability , CVE – , that potentially affects older unpatched Windows versions via the program’s Remote Desktop Protocol , allowing for the possibility of remote code execution , may now include related flaws, collectively named DejaBlue , affecting newer Windows versions i.

These global groups then hold other groups or users depending on different Windows versions used. This system varies from other vendor products such as Linux and NetWare due to the ‘static’ allocation of permission being applied directly to the file or folder.

Owing to the operating system’s popularity, a number of applications have been released that aim to provide compatibility with Windows applications, either as a compatibility layer for another operating system, or as a standalone system that can run software written for Windows out of the box.

These include:. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Family of computer operating systems developed by Microsoft. For the part of a building, see Window. For other uses, see Windows disambiguation. This article relies too much on references to primary sources.

Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Closed-source Source-available through Shared Source Initiative. Main article: History of Microsoft Windows. See also: List of Microsoft Windows versions. Main articles: Windows 1. Main articles: Windows 3. Main article: Windows NT. Main articles: Windows NT 3. Main article: Windows XP. Main article: Windows Vista. Main article: Windows 7. Main articles: Windows 8 and Windows 8. Main article: Windows See also: Azure Virtual Desktop.

Main article: Xbox system software. Table of Windows versions. Old version. Older version, still maintained. Latest version. Latest preview version. Future release. Windows timeline: Bar chart. Main article: Usage share of operating systems. This box: view talk edit. This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. May Microsoft Support. August 9, Windows Insider Blog.

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San Jose, California : Microsoft. April 30, Archived from the original on January 15, Retrieved February 14, Archived from the original on November 22, December 4, Archived from the original on February 13, Retrieved August 26, Archived from the original on August 1, Retrieved May 21, Inside Windows NT. Redmond: Microsoft Press. ISBN X. Archived from the original on January 1, Retrieved May 28, Archived from the original on May 26, Retrieved May 24, March 12, Retrieved November 13, Archived from the original on April 3, Retrieved July 22, Part One “.

CNET Networks. Archived from the original on December 19, Paul Thurrott’s SuperSite for Windows. September 3, Archived from the original on February 27, Windows Experience Blog. Archived from the original on November 1, Retrieved November 11, Retrieved August 21, Archived from the original on November 2, Retrieved March 29, Archived from the original on September 4, Retrieved September 9, Business Insider.

Archived from the original on January 22, April 16, Archived from the original on April 18, Retrieved April 17, Archived from the original on November 26, Retrieved November 21, The Verge. Vox Media. May 17, Archived from the original on September 10, Retrieved September 8, PC Magazine. Archived from the original on February 17, Archived October 19, , at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on October 31, September 30, Retrieved September 30, Ars Technica.

Retrieved July 2, The Spectrum. Retrieved September 18, Retrieved June 24, Archived from the original on May 31, Retrieved May 31, Retrieved July 14, The Wall Street Journal. ISSN Retrieved July 15, Retrieved August 2, Archived from the original on October 12, Retrieved October 21, Archived from the original on November 16, Retrieved December 1, Xbox Official Site.

Archived from the original on April 27, Retrieved November 30, Archived from the original on December 27, Archived from the original on February 2, Archived from the original on July 8, Archived from the original on September 28, The Old New Thing. Brian Harry’s Blog. May 24, Retrieved October 8, Archived from the original on December 26, Retrieved December 26, Archived from the original on July 7, Retrieved July 7, We transitioned our large repository strategy to focus on using git sparse-checkout instead of filesystem virtualization.

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September 18, Archived from the original on May 12, Was this reply helpful? Yes No. Sorry this didn’t help. Thanks for your feedback. Choose where you want to search below Search Search the Community. Search the community and support articles Install, redeem, activate Microsoft and Office Search Community member. I cannot install Microsoft Office Professional on Windows 7 operating system. I keep getting error message that there is a missing or corrupt file and I’m installing from cd.

This thread is locked. You can follow the question or vote as helpful, but you cannot reply to this thread. I have the same question 9.

Если у входа на площадку взять вправо, можно увидеть самый дальний левый угол площадки, даже еще не выйдя на. Если Беккер окажется там, Халохот сразу же выстрелит. Если нет, он войдет и будет двигаться на восток, держа в поле зрения правый угол, единственное место, где мог находиться Беккер. Он улыбнулся.

 
 

Microsoft office professional hybrid 2007 installer free.SharePoint – Wikipedia

 

Log into your account. Forgot your password? Create an account. Register for an account. Microsoft Office Professional formerly known as Office нажмите сюда helps professionals work FASTER, stay organized, and manage contacts and customer information in one microsoft office professional hybrid 2007 installer free. Visualize data more effectively.

Forecast, track, microsoft office professional hybrid 2007 installer free manage projects and opportunities. And produce professional-quality marketing materials entirely in-house.

Discover the quickest way to more easily find, organize, analyze, and use all the information you need to succeed. Microsoft Office contains a number of new features, the most notable of which is the entirely new graphical user interface called the Fluent User Interface initially referred to as the Ribbon User Interfacereplacing the menus and toolbars.

It have been the cornerstone of Office since its inception. Office also includes new applications and server-side tools. Chief among these is Groove, a collaboration and communication suite for smaller businesses, which was originally developed by Groove Networks before being acquired by Microsoft in Microsoft FrontPage has been removed from the Office suite entirely. Its designer-oriented counterpart Microsoft Expression Web is targeted for general web development. However, neither application has been included in Office Speech recognition and handwriting recognition are now part of Windows Vista.

Speech and ink components have been removed from Office However, XP users can use an earlier version of Office to use speech recognition. Sign in Join. Sign In Welcome! Log into your account Your username. Your password. Sign Up Welcome! Register for an account Your email.

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If you find the office disc to be corrupt, you may refer the link below to order for replacement media :. You can also download Office professional from the download link below and install it using your product key:. For assistance in troubleshooting Office installation issues from disc you may refer the KB article below:. Was this reply helpful? Yes No. Sorry this didn’t help.

Thanks for your feedback. Choose where you want to search below Search Search the Community. Search the community and support articles Install, redeem, activate Microsoft and Office Search Community member. I cannot install Microsoft Office Professional on Windows 7 operating system. I keep getting error message that there is a missing or corrupt file and I’m installing from cd. This thread is locked. You can follow the question or vote as helpful, but you cannot reply to this thread. I have the same question 9.

Report abuse. Details required :. Cancel Submit. Mukherjee Ashutosh. Are you trying to install Office from disc or from download file? How satisfied are you with this reply? Thanks for your feedback, it helps us improve the site.

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A computer is a digital electronic machine that can be programmed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations computation automatically.

Modern computers can perform generic sets of operations known as programs. These programs enable computers to perform a wide range of tasks. A computer system is a “complete” computer that includes the hardware , operating system main software , and peripheral equipment needed and used for “full” operation.

This term may also refer to a group of computers that are linked and function together, such as a computer network or computer cluster. A broad range of industrial and consumer products use computers as control systems.

Simple special-purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls are included, as are factory devices like industrial robots and computer-aided design , as well as general-purpose devices like personal computers and mobile devices like smartphones. Computers power the Internet , which links billions of other computers and users. Early computers were meant to be used only for calculations.

Simple manual instruments like the abacus have aided people in doing calculations since ancient times. Early in the Industrial Revolution , some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century.

The first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The first semiconductor transistors in the late s were followed by the silicon -based MOSFET MOS transistor and monolithic integrated circuit IC chip technologies in the late s, leading to the microprocessor and the microcomputer revolution in the s. The speed, power and versatility of computers have been increasing dramatically ever since then, with transistor counts increasing at a rapid pace as predicted by Moore’s law , leading to the Digital Revolution during the late 20th to early 21st centuries.

Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element , typically a central processing unit CPU in the form of a microprocessor , along with some type of computer memory , typically semiconductor memory chips.

The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored information.

Peripheral devices include input devices keyboards, mice, joystick , etc. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and they enable the result of operations to be saved and retrieved. According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the first known use of computer was in a book called The Yong Mans Gleanings by the English writer Richard Brathwait : “I haue [ sic ] read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer [sic] breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number.

The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. During the latter part of this period women were often hired as computers because they could be paid less than their male counterparts. The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of computer in the s, meaning ‘one who calculates’; this is an “agent noun from compute v. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean ” ‘calculating machine’ of any type is from Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers.

The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick. Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi clay spheres, cones, etc. The abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from devices used in Babylonia as early as BC.

Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house , a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money. The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest known mechanical analog computer , according to Derek J. It was discovered in in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera , between Kythera and Crete , and has been dated to approximately c.

Devices of comparable complexity to the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until the fourteenth century. Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use.

A combination of the planisphere and dioptra , the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy. An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical calendar computer [9] [10] and gear -wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan , Persia in The sector , a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation.

The planimeter was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage. The slide rule was invented around — by the English clergyman William Oughtred , shortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm. It is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division.

As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental functions such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions. Slide rules with special scales are still used for quick performance of routine calculations, such as the E6B circular slide rule used for time and distance calculations on light aircraft.

In the s, Pierre Jaquet-Droz , a Swiss watchmaker , built a mechanical doll automaton that could write holding a quill pen. By switching the number and order of its internal wheels different letters, and hence different messages, could be produced. In effect, it could be mechanically “programmed” to read instructions. In —, mathematician and engineer Giovanni Plana devised a Perpetual Calendar machine , which, through a system of pulleys and cylinders and over, could predict the perpetual calendar for every year from AD 0 that is, 1 BC to AD , keeping track of leap years and varying day length.

The tide-predicting machine invented by the Scottish scientist Sir William Thomson in was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location.

The differential analyser , a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration , used wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration. In , Sir William Thomson had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators.

The torque amplifier was the advance that allowed these machines to work. Starting in the s, Vannevar Bush and others developed mechanical differential analyzers. Charles Babbage , an English mechanical engineer and polymath , originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the ” father of the computer “, [17] he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century.

After working on his revolutionary difference engine , designed to aid in navigational calculations, in he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Engine , was possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards , a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later.

The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit , control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops , and integrated memory , making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete.

The machine was about a century ahead of its time. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand — this was a major problem for a device with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the British Government to cease funding. Babbage’s failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to political and financial difficulties as well as his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow.

Nevertheless, his son, Henry Babbage , completed a simplified version of the analytical engine’s computing unit the mill in He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers , which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation.

However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers. The differential analyser , a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in by James Thomson , the elder brother of the more famous Sir William Thomson. The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzer , built by H.

This built on the mechanical integrators of James Thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by H. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious. By the s, the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but analog computers remained in use during the s in some specialized applications such as education slide rule and aircraft control systems.

By , the United States Navy had developed an electromechanical analog computer small enough to use aboard a submarine. This was the Torpedo Data Computer , which used trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target. During World War II similar devices were developed in other countries as well. Early digital computers were electromechanical ; electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation.

These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes. The Z2 , created by German engineer Konrad Zuse in , was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer.

In , Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3 , the world’s first working electromechanical programmable , fully automatic digital computer.

It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating-point numbers. Rather than the harder-to-implement decimal system used in Charles Babbage ‘s earlier design , using a binary system meant that Zuse’s machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time.

Zuse’s next computer, the Z4 , became the world’s first commercial computer; after initial delay due to the Second World War, it was completed in and delivered to the ETH Zurich. Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog.

The engineer Tommy Flowers , working at the Post Office Research Station in London in the s, began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange. Experimental equipment that he built in went into operation five years later, converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes.

The German encryption machine, Enigma , was first attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical bombes which were often run by women. Colossus was the world’s first electronic digital programmable computer. It had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of boolean logical operations on its data, but it was not Turing-complete.

Colossus Mark I contained 1, thermionic valves tubes , but Mark II with 2, valves, was both five times faster and simpler to operate than Mark I, greatly speeding the decoding process.

Like the Colossus, a “program” on the ENIAC was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the stored program electronic machines that came later. Once a program was written, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches.

It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems. It could add or subtract times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High speed memory was limited to 20 words about 80 bytes. Built under the direction of John Mauchly and J. The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18, vacuum tubes, 1, relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

The principle of the modern computer was proposed by Alan Turing in his seminal paper, [42] On Computable Numbers.

Microsoft sold as included Windows Development libraries with the C development environment, which included numerous windows samples. Windows 2. It features several improvements to the user interface and memory management. The result of this change led to Apple Computer filing a suit against Microsoft alleging infringement on Apple’s copyrights. It runs in real mode but can make use of the high memory area.

In addition to full Windows-packages, there were runtime-only versions that shipped with early Windows software from third parties and made it possible to run their Windows software on MS-DOS and without the full Windows feature set. The early versions of Windows are often thought of as graphical shells, mostly because they ran on top of MS-DOS and use it for file system services.

Unlike MS-DOS, Windows allowed users to execute multiple graphical applications at the same time, through cooperative multitasking. Windows implemented an elaborate, segment-based, software virtual memory scheme, which allows it to run applications larger than available memory: code segments and resources are swapped in and thrown away when memory became scarce; data segments moved in memory when a given application had relinquished processor control.

Windows 3. They run inside the same address space, where the segmented memory provides a degree of protection. Microsoft rewrote critical operations from C into assembly. In August , Windows for Workgroups, a special version with integrated peer-to-peer networking features and a version number of 3. It was sold along with Windows 3. Support for Windows 3. The next major consumer-oriented release of Windows, Windows 95 , was released on August 24, While still remaining MS-DOS-based, Windows 95 introduced support for native bit applications , plug and play hardware, preemptive multitasking , long file names of up to characters, and provided increased stability over its predecessors.

Windows 95 also introduced a redesigned, object oriented user interface, replacing the previous Program Manager with the Start menu , taskbar , and Windows Explorer shell. Windows 95 was a major commercial success for Microsoft; Ina Fried of CNET remarked that “by the time Windows 95 was finally ushered off the market in , it had become a fixture on computer desktops around the world.

Windows 95 was followed up with the release of Windows 98 on June 25, , which introduced the Windows Driver Model , support for USB composite devices , support for ACPI , hibernation , and support for multi-monitor configurations.

Windows 98 also included integration with Internet Explorer 4 through Active Desktop and other aspects of the Windows Desktop Update a series of enhancements to the Explorer shell which were also made available for Windows Windows 98 SE added Internet Explorer 5.

Mainstream support for Windows 98 ended on June 30, , and extended support for Windows 98 ended on July 11, Windows Me incorporated visual interface enhancements from its Windows NT-based counterpart Windows , had faster boot times than previous versions which however, required the removal of the ability to access a real mode DOS environment, removing compatibility with some older programs , [31] expanded multimedia functionality including Windows Media Player 7, Windows Movie Maker , and the Windows Image Acquisition framework for retrieving images from scanners and digital cameras , additional system utilities such as System File Protection and System Restore , and updated home networking tools.

PC World considered Windows Me to be one of the worst operating systems Microsoft had ever released, and the 4th worst tech product of all time. However, following the successful release of Windows 3. Win32 maintained a similar structure to the Windows APIs allowing existing Windows applications to easily be ported to the platform , but also supported the capabilities of the existing NT kernel. Following its approval by Microsoft’s staff, development continued on what was now Windows NT, the first bit version of Windows.

Windows NT was the first Windows operating system based on a hybrid kernel. The hybrid kernel was designed as a modified microkernel , influenced by the Mach microkernel developed by Richard Rashid at Carnegie Mellon University, but without meeting all of the criteria of a pure microkernel.

The first release of the resulting operating system, Windows NT 3. Windows NT 3. Windows NT 4. The Windows NT name was dropped at this point in order to put a greater focus on the Windows brand. The introduction of Windows XP aimed to unify the consumer-oriented Windows 9x series with the architecture introduced by Windows NT, a change which Microsoft promised would provide better performance over its DOS-based predecessors. Windows XP would also introduce a redesigned user interface including an updated Start menu and a “task-oriented” Windows Explorer , streamlined multimedia and networking features, Internet Explorer 6 , integration with Microsoft’s.

NET Passport services, a ” compatibility mode ” to help provide backwards compatibility with software designed for previous versions of Windows, and Remote Assistance functionality. At retail, Windows XP was now marketed in two main editions : the “Home” edition was targeted towards consumers, while the “Professional” edition was targeted towards business environments and power users , and included additional security and networking features.

Home and Professional were later accompanied by the “Media Center” edition designed for home theater PCs , with an emphasis on support for DVD playback, TV tuner cards , DVR functionality, and remote controls , and the “Tablet PC” edition designed for mobile devices meeting its specifications for a tablet computer , with support for stylus pen input and additional pen-enabled applications.

Extended support ended on April 8, After Windows , Microsoft also changed its release schedules for server operating systems; the server counterpart of Windows XP, Windows Server , was released in April After a lengthy development process , Windows Vista was released on November 30, , for volume licensing and January 30, , for consumers.

It contained a number of new features , from a redesigned shell and user interface to significant technical changes , with a particular focus on security features. It was available in a number of different editions , and has been subject to some criticism , such as drop of performance, longer boot time, criticism of new UAC, and stricter license agreement.

Vista’s server counterpart, Windows Server was released in early On July 22, , Windows 7 and Windows Server R2 were released as RTM release to manufacturing while the former was released to the public 3 months later on October 22, Unlike its predecessor, Windows Vista, which introduced a large number of new features , Windows 7 was intended to be a more focused, incremental upgrade to the Windows line, with the goal of being compatible with applications and hardware with which Windows Vista was already compatible.

Windows 8 , the successor to Windows 7, was released generally on October 26, A number of significant changes were made on Windows 8, including the introduction of a user interface based around Microsoft’s Metro design language with optimizations for touch-based devices such as tablets and all-in-one PCs. These changes include the Start screen , which uses large tiles that are more convenient for touch interactions and allow for the display of continually updated information, and a new class of apps which are designed primarily for use on touch-based devices.

Other changes include increased integration with cloud services and other online platforms such as social networks and Microsoft’s own OneDrive formerly SkyDrive and Xbox Live services , the Windows Store service for software distribution, and a new variant known as Windows RT for use on devices that utilize the ARM architecture , and a new keyboard shortcut for screenshots. Windows 8 and Windows 8. On September 30, , Microsoft announced Windows 10 as the successor to Windows 8.

It was released on July 29, , and addresses shortcomings in the user interface first introduced with Windows 8. Changes on PC include the return of the Start Menu, a virtual desktop system, and the ability to run Windows Store apps within windows on the desktop rather than in full-screen mode.

Windows 10 is said to be available to update from qualified Windows 7 with SP1, Windows 8. In February , Microsoft announced the migration of its Windows source code repository from Perforce to Git. This migration involved 3. In June , shortly before Microsoft’s announcement of Windows 11, Microsoft updated their lifecycle policy pages for Windows 10, revealing that support for their last release of Windows 10 will be October 14, On June 24, , Windows 11 was announced as the successor to Windows 10 during a livestream.

The new operating system was designed to be more user-friendly and understandable. It was released on October 5, In July , Microsoft announced it will start selling subscriptions to virtualized Windows desktops as part of a new Windows service in the following month. It is not a standalone version of Windows, but a web service that provides access to Windows 10 and Windows 11 built on top of Azure Virtual Desktop. The new service will allow for cross-platform usage , aiming to make the operating system available for both Apple and Android users.

The subscription service will be accessible through any operating system with a web browser. The new service is an attempt at capitalizing on the growing trend, fostered during the COVID pandemic , for businesses to adopt a hybrid remote work environment, in which “employees split their time between the office and home”.

As the service will be accessible through web browsers, Microsoft will be able to bypass the need to publish the service through Google Play or the Apple App Store. Microsoft announced Windows availability to business and enterprise customers on August 2, Multilingual support has been built into Windows since Windows 3.

The language for both the keyboard and the interface can be changed through the Region and Language Control Panel. Components for all supported input languages, such as Input Method Editors , are automatically installed during Windows installation in Windows XP and earlier, files for East Asian languages, such as Chinese, and right-to-left scripts, such as Arabic, may need to be installed separately, also from the said Control Panel.

Third-party IMEs may also be installed if a user feels that the provided one is insufficient for their needs. Interface languages for the operating system are free for download, but some languages are limited to certain editions of Windows. Language Interface Packs LIPs are redistributable and may be downloaded from Microsoft’s Download Center and installed for any edition of Windows XP or later — they translate most, but not all, of the Windows interface, and require a certain base language the language which Windows originally shipped with.

This is used for most languages in emerging markets. Full Language Packs, which translates the complete operating system, are only available for specific editions of Windows Ultimate and Enterprise editions of Windows Vista and 7, and all editions of Windows 8, 8.

They do not require a specific base language, and are commonly used for more popular languages such as French or Chinese. These languages cannot be downloaded through the Download Center, but available as optional updates through the Windows Update service except Windows 8.

The interface language of installed applications is not affected by changes in the Windows interface language. The availability of languages depends on the application developers themselves. Windows 8 and Windows Server introduces a new Language Control Panel where both the interface and input languages can be simultaneously changed, and language packs, regardless of type, can be downloaded from a central location.

The PC Settings app in Windows 8. Changing the interface language also changes the language of preinstalled Windows Store apps such as Mail, Maps and News and certain other Microsoft-developed apps such as Remote Desktop. The above limitations for language packs are however still in effect, except that full language packs can be installed for any edition except Single Language, which caters to emerging markets. Windows NT included support for several platforms before the x86 -based personal computer became dominant in the professional world.

Windows dropped support for all platforms, except the third generation x86 known as IA or newer in bit mode. With the introduction of the Intel Itanium architecture IA , Microsoft released new versions of Windows to support it.

Itanium versions of Windows XP and Windows Server were released at the same time as their mainstream x86 counterparts. Windows Server line continues to support this platform until Windows Server ; Windows Server R2 is the last Windows operating system to support Itanium architecture. Windows 11 is the first version to drop support for bit hardware. Windows CE officially known as Windows Embedded Compact , is an edition of Windows that runs on minimalistic computers , like satellite navigation systems and some mobile phones.

The OEMs and device makers can modify and create their own user interfaces and experiences, while Windows CE provides the technical foundation to do so. Windows CE was the core from which Windows Mobile was derived. Windows Phone 8 however, is based on the same NT-kernel as Windows 8.

Xbox OS is an unofficial name given to the version of Windows that runs on Xbox consoles. Shortly after Windows was released, Microsoft switched to a fork of Perforce named Source Depot. In Microsoft announced that it would start using Git , an open source version control system created by Linus Torvalds and in May they reported that has completed migration into the Git repository.

Because of its large, decades-long history, however, the Windows codebase is not especially well suited to the decentralized nature of Linux development that Git was originally created to manage. Version market share As a percentage of desktop and laptop systems using Windows, [82] according to StatCounter data from July Feel safe whenever you are placing an order with us.

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Our payment system is also very secure. We have employed highly qualified writers. They are all specialized in specific fields. Or try free for 1 month. Word, Excel, PowerPoint. Up to 6 TB 1 TB per person. Microsoft Editor advanced writing assistance. Learn more. Talk to an expert. Usage people. Usage 1 person. Usage 1 PC or Mac. Word, Excel, PowerPoint Premium. Word, Excel, PowerPoint Classic. While custom architectures are still used for most of the most powerful supercomputers, there has been a proliferation of cluster computers in recent years.

However, this method was usually used only as part of the booting process. Most modern computers boot entirely automatically by reading a boot program from some non-volatile memory. An x compatible microprocessor like the AMD Athlon 64 is able to run most of the same programs that an Intel Core 2 microprocessor can, as well as programs designed for earlier microprocessors like the Intel Pentiums and Intel This contrasts with very early commercial computers, which were often one-of-a-kind and totally incompatible with other computers.

Interpreted languages are translated into machine code on the fly, while running, by another program called an interpreter. Computer hardware may fail or may itself have a fundamental problem that produces unexpected results in certain situations.

For instance, the Pentium FDIV bug caused some Intel microprocessors in the early s to produce inaccurate results for certain floating point division operations.

This was caused by a flaw in the microprocessor design and resulted in a partial recall of the affected devices. Online Etymology Dictionary.

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Let our professional writers handle your assignments and submit them to you no matter how close the deadline seems to be. This will protect you from all the pressure that comes along with assignments. Archived from the original on March 3, Retrieved June 28, The Windows Observer. Archived from the original on December 12, February 15, Archived from the original on April 7, United Press International.

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Chief among these is Groove, a collaboration and communication suite for smaller businesses, which was originally developed by Groove Networks before being acquired by Microsoft in Microsoft FrontPage has been removed from the Office suite entirely. Its designer-oriented counterpart Microsoft Expression Web is targeted for general web development. However, neither application has been included in Office Speech recognition and handwriting recognition are now part of Windows Vista.

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The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer’s memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs which are just lists of these instructions can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data.

The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer’s memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program, architecture. This is called the Harvard architecture after the Harvard Mark I computer.

Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in CPU caches. While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers machine language and while this technique was used with many early computers, [h] it is extremely tedious and potentially error-prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs.

These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer’s assembly language. Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand machine language is usually done by a computer program called an assembler. Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run.

Unlike natural languages , programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques. Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them collectively termed low-level programming languages are generally unique to the particular architecture of a computer’s central processing unit CPU.

Although considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract high-level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently and thereby help reduce programmer error.

High level languages are usually “compiled” into machine language or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language using another computer program called a compiler. It is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles.

Program design of small programs is relatively simple and involves the analysis of the problem, collection of inputs, using the programming constructs within languages, devising or using established procedures and algorithms, providing data for output devices and solutions to the problem as applicable.

As problems become larger and more complex, features such as subprograms, modules, formal documentation, and new paradigms such as object-oriented programming are encountered. Large programs involving thousands of line of code and more require formal software methodologies. The task of developing large software systems presents a significant intellectual challenge. Producing software with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically been difficult; the academic and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge.

Errors in computer programs are called ” bugs “. They may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. But in some cases, they may cause the program or the entire system to ” hang “, becoming unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or keystrokes, to completely fail, or to crash. Bugs are usually not the fault of the computer.

Since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program’s design. Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the s. The U. In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet.

The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web , combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous.

In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information.

A computer does not need to be electronic , nor even have a processor , nor RAM , nor even a hard disk. While popular usage of the word “computer” is synonymous with a personal electronic computer, [l] the modern definition of a computer is literally: ” A device that computes , especially a programmable [usually] electronic machine that performs high-speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise processes information.

There is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as optical computers , DNA computers , neural computers , and quantum computers. Most computers are universal, and are able to calculate any computable function , and are limited only by their memory capacity and operating speed. However different designs of computers can give very different performance for particular problems; for example quantum computers can potentially break some modern encryption algorithms by quantum factoring very quickly.

There are many types of computer architectures :. Of all these abstract machines , a quantum computer holds the most promise for revolutionizing computing. The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from calculators. The Church—Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a minimum capability being Turing-complete is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform.

Therefore, any type of computer netbook , supercomputer , cellular automaton , etc. A computer will solve problems in exactly the way it is programmed to, without regard to efficiency, alternative solutions, possible shortcuts, or possible errors in the code. Computer programs that learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of artificial intelligence and machine learning. Artificial intelligence based products generally fall into two major categories: rule-based systems and pattern recognition systems.

Rule-based systems attempt to represent the rules used by human experts and tend to be expensive to develop. Pattern-based systems use data about a problem to generate conclusions. Examples of pattern-based systems include voice recognition , font recognition, translation and the emerging field of on-line marketing.

As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers. The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Automatic general-purpose device for performing arithmetic or logical operations. For other uses, see Computer disambiguation. Computers and computing devices from different eras. Main articles: History of computing and History of computing hardware. For a chronological guide, see Timeline of computing.

Main article: Analog computer. Main article: Stored-program computer. Main articles: Transistor and History of the transistor. Main articles: Integrated circuit and Invention of the integrated circuit.

Further information: Planar process and Microprocessor. See also: Classes of computers. Main articles: Computer hardware , Personal computer hardware , Central processing unit , and Microprocessor. Main article: History of computing hardware.

Main articles: CPU design and Control unit. Main articles: Central processing unit and Microprocessor. Main article: Arithmetic logic unit. Main articles: Computer memory and Computer data storage.

Main article: Computer multitasking. Main article: Multiprocessing. Main article: Software. Main articles: Computer program and Computer programming. Main article: Programming language. Main article: Low-level programming language. Main article: High-level programming language. This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources.

Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. July Learn how and when to remove this template message. Main article: Software bug. Main articles: Computer networking and Internet. Main article: Human computer. See also: Harvard Computers. Glossary of computers Computability theory Computer security Glossary of computer hardware terms History of computer science List of computer term etymologies List of fictional computers List of pioneers in computer science Pulse computation TOP list of most powerful computers Unconventional computing.

The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers.

Eventually the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count. Schmandt-Besserat estimates it took years. All of the architectures listed in this table, except for Alpha, existed in bit forms before their bit incarnations were introduced.

Although the control unit is solely responsible for instruction interpretation in most modern computers, this is not always the case.

Some computers have instructions that are partially interpreted by the control unit with further interpretation performed by another device. For example, EDVAC , one of the earliest stored-program computers, used a central control unit that interpreted only four instructions. All of the arithmetic-related instructions were passed on to its arithmetic unit and further decoded there. These so-called computer clusters can often provide supercomputer performance at a much lower cost than customized designs.

While custom architectures are still used for most of the most powerful supercomputers, there has been a proliferation of cluster computers in recent years. However, this method was usually used only as part of the booting process. Most modern computers boot entirely automatically by reading a boot program from some non-volatile memory. An x compatible microprocessor like the AMD Athlon 64 is able to run most of the same programs that an Intel Core 2 microprocessor can, as well as programs designed for earlier microprocessors like the Intel Pentiums and Intel This contrasts with very early commercial computers, which were often one-of-a-kind and totally incompatible with other computers.

Interpreted languages are translated into machine code on the fly, while running, by another program called an interpreter. Computer hardware may fail or may itself have a fundamental problem that produces unexpected results in certain situations. For instance, the Pentium FDIV bug caused some Intel microprocessors in the early s to produce inaccurate results for certain floating point division operations. This was caused by a flaw in the microprocessor design and resulted in a partial recall of the affected devices.

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